Waterfowl of North America, Revised Edition (2010)

Waterfowl of North America: Color photographs (following page 50)

Paul A. Johnsgard — Tue, 27 Apr 2010 10:21:19 PDT

Trumpeter Swan, Adult (drinking)
Lesser Snow Goose (Blue Phase), Adult and young
Lesser Canada Goose, Adults
Atlantic Brant, Adult
Barnacle Goose, Adults
Wood Duck, Adult Male
American Wigeon, Pair
Gadwall, Pair
Green-winged Teal, Pair
Mexican Mallard, Adult Male
Florida Mallard, Pair
Northern Pintail, Pair
Blue-winged Teal, Pair
Cinnamon Teal, Pair
Shoveler, Pair
Canvasback, Pair
Redhead, Pair
Ring-necked Duck, Pair
Greater Scaup, Pair
King Eider, Pair
Steller Eider, Adults
Harlequin Duck,Male
Surf Scoter, Male
Bufflehead, Pair
Barrow Goldeneye, Pair
Common Goldeneye, Pair
Hooded Merganser, Displaying Male
Red-breasted Merganser, Male
Common Merganser, Pair
Ruddy Duck, Male

Waterfowl of North America: Black & white photographs (following page 450)

Paul A. Johnsgard — Tue, 27 Apr 2010 10:13:59 PDT

Steller Eider, Pair
Spectacled Eider, Adult female
Spectacled Eider, Adult male
Oldsquaw, Male in Summer
Oldsquaw, Male in Winter
Oldsquaw, Female in late Spring
Harlequin Duck, Adult male
Harlequin Duck, Pair
American Black Scoter, Male (Courtesy Felix Neck Wildlife Trust)
European Black Scoter, Pair
Surf Scoter, Male (San Diego Zoo Photo)
Surf Scoter, Pair
White-winged Scoter, Male (Courtesy Felix Neck Wildlife Trust)
White-winged Scoter, Adult female
Bufflehead, Adult males
Bufflehead, Pair
Barrow Goldeneye, Adult male
Common Goldeneye, Pair
Common Goldeneye, Courting pair
Smew, Pair
Smew, Adult male
Hooded Merganser, Adult female
Hooded Merganser, Adult male
Red-breasted Merganser, Adult male
Red-breasted Merganser, Male in eclipse
Common Merganser, Adult male
Common Merganser, Adult female
Masked Duck, Males in eclipse and nuptial plumage (Courtesy Dale Crider)
Masked Duck, Juvenile (Courtesy Dirk Hagemeyer)
Ruddy Duck, Displaying pair
Ruddy Duck, Displaying male

Waterfowl of North America: Black & white photographs (following page 338)

Paul A. Johnsgard — Tue, 27 Apr 2010 10:06:39 PDT

Gadwall, Pair
Gadwall, Adult male
Baikal Teal, Pair
American Green-winged Teal, Pair
Baikal Teal, Adult male
American Green-winged Teal, Adult male
Common Mallard, Adult male
Common Mallard, Brooding female
Mexican Mallard, Pair
Florida Mallard, Pair
Northern Pintail, Adult male
Bahama Pintail, Adult male
Garganey, Adult male
Garganey, Pair
Blue-winged Teal, Pair
Cinnamon Teal, Pair
Northern Shoveler, Adult male
Northern Shoveler, Pair
Canvasback, Adult female
Canvasback, Pair
Redhead, Adult male
Redhead, Adult female
Ring-necked Duck, Pair
Ring-necked Duck, Pair
Tufted Duck, Pair
Greater Scaup, Pair
Greater Scaup, Adult male
Lesser Scaup, Pair
American Common Eider, Adult males
American Common Eider, Group of adults
King Eider, Adult male
King Eider, Adult female

Waterfowl of North America: Black & white photographs (following page 210)

Paul A. Johnsgard — Tue, 27 Apr 2010 09:58:57 PDT

Fulvous Whistling Duck, Pair
Cuban Whistling Duck, Pair
Black-bellied Whistling Duck, Pair
Mute Swan, Subadult
Mute Swan, Adults
Trumpeter Swan, Pair
Whistling Swan, Adult
White-fronted Goose, Adult
White-fronted Goose, Adult
Lesser Snow Goose, Adult
Lesser Snow Goose, Adults
Ross Goose, Adults
Emperor Goose, Adult
Aleutian Canada Goose, Adult
Cackling Canada Goose, Adult
Atlantic Canada Goose, Pair
Baffin Island Canada Goose, Pair
Barnacle Goose, Female and brood
Pacific Brant Goose, Pair at nest
Pacific Brant Goose, Adult
Muscovy Duck, Adult male
Wood Duck, Adult male
Wood Duck, Pair resting
European Wigeon, Adult males
European Wigeon, Pair
American Wigeon, Adult male
American Wigeon, Pair
Falcated Duck, Adult male
Falcated Duck, Pair

Waterfowl of North America: Index

Paul A. Johnsgard — Tue, 27 Apr 2010 09:51:53 PDT

English vernacular names of waterfowl indexed here are in general those used in this book for species or larger groupings. Vernacular names for subspecies are only indexed to those pages where they may be listed among the subspecies included in the species accounts. Pages that include the primary discussions of each species are indicated by boldface under the species' vernacular name and its scientific name. Species other than waterfowl are not indexed.

acuta, Anas, 257-267
[through]
Wood Duck, 13, 14, 16, 20, 24,28, 35, 161, 169-180, 480, 486, 490; map, 172

Waterfowl of North America: Sources

Paul A. Johnsgard — Tue, 27 Apr 2010 09:49:29 PDT

Approximately 500 citations.

See also the updated bibliography in the 2010 supplement: "North America’s Ducks, Geese and Swans in the 21st Century"

Waterfowl of North America: Name Derivations

Paul A. Johnsgard — Tue, 27 Apr 2010 09:46:54 PDT

Excluding extralimital species and most subspecies unless these are sometimes considered full species.

Aix [through] Spatula

Waterfowl of North America: STIFF-TAILED DUCKS Tribe Oxyurini

Paul A. Johnsgard — Tue, 27 Apr 2010 09:45:08 PDT

This bizarre group of diving ducks differs from the rest of the Anatidae in so many respects that by any standard it demands special attention. Of the eight species that are presently recognized, most are placed in the genus Oxyura, which name refers to the stiffened, elongated tail feathers typical of the group. In these species the tail feathers extend well beyond the rather short tail coverts and are usually narrow-vaned, so that the individual rectrices tend to separate when spread. The feet are unusually large, and the legs are placed farther to the rear of the body than in any other waterfowl tribe, increasing propulsion efficiency during diving but rendering the birds nearly helpless on land. This grebe-like adaptation is paralleled by the evolution of numerous short, glossy body feathers, presumably increasing the effectiveness of waterproofing. In the typical stiff-tails the bill is rather short, broad, and distinctly flattened toward the tip, and virtually all the foraging is done under water. At least in the North American species of stiff-tails, most of the food taken is of vegetable origin. Nests of the typical stiff-tails are built above water, of reed mats or similar vegetation, and often a ramp leads from the nest cup to the water, providing easy access. The birds are quite heavy-bodied and have relatively short wings, so that flight is attained with some difficulty in most species. The masked duck is something of an exception to this point, since its combination of small body size and fairly long wings allows it to land and take off with surprising agility from water of moderate depth.

Only two species of stiff-tails have ever been reported from North America, and it is most unlikely that any others will ever occur here by natural means. The ruddy duck is much the more widespread and abundant of these, while the little-known masked duck barely reaches the Mexico-United States border as a breeding species. Indeed, the masked duck is the species most recently added to the list of known breeding North American waterfowl, since it was not until 1967 that firm evidence of its breeding in Texas was established.

Waterfowl of North America: SEA DUCKS Tribe Mergini

Paul A. Johnsgard — Tue, 27 Apr 2010 09:42:09 PDT

The sea ducks are a group of mostly arctic-adapted diving ducks that usually winter in coastal waters and typically breed in tundra situations or in northern forests. All twenty species (two of which are now extinct) depend predominantly on animal sources of food, and some feed exclusively on such materials. These foods include shellfish, mollusks, other invertebrates, and aquatic vertebrates such as fish. In general the sea ducks are thus not regarded as highly as table birds as are the surface-feeding ducks and some of the more vegetarian pochard species. Like the pochards, their legs are placed well to the rear and their feet are unusually large; thus the birds have sacrificed the ability to walk easily for their diving adaptations. Also in common with pochards, their generally heavier bodies relative to wing surface area prevent them from taking flight without running some distance over the water prior to reaching minimum flight speed. In the air they often make up in speed for their limited maneuverability, although some of the largest sea ducks are rather ponderous in flight. Some species exhibit a good deal of white on the wings while in flight, and, unlike the pochards, two species have iridescent speculum patterns. The arctic-breeding and tundra-nesting forms typically build open-cup nests in low vegetation, while the forest-nesting species often use hollow trees or other natural cavities for their nest sites. Some of these tree-nesting species have moderately long tails and can perch fairly well, but the larger eiders and scoters rarely stray far from the water's edge and are rather helpless on land.

Of the total of twenty species of sea ducks, North America is well endowed with fifteen extant breeding species, as well as the extinct Labrador duck. Further, the Old World smew has been reported several times in recent years, so that the only species not reported from North America are two Southern Hemisphere mergansers and an Asian species of merganser. Most of the North American species also occur extensively in the Old World, with the bufflehead, surf scoter, Barrow goldeneye, and hooded merganser being the exceptions.

Waterfowl of North America: POCHARDS (Fresh Water Diving Ducks) Tribe Aythyini

Paul A. Johnsgard — Tue, 27 Apr 2010 09:39:13 PDT

Until recent classifications by Jean Delacour and others, the pochard group was not taxonomically distinguished from the more marine-adapted sea ducks, here included in the following tribe Mergini. Nevertheless, the pochards are a readily definable group of mostly medium-sized ducks that differ from their close relatives, the surface-feeding ducks, in several respects. Their legs are situated somewhat farther back on the body, so that they are less adept at walking on land; their feet and associated webs are larger, increasing diving effectiveness (reflected by the increased length of the outer toes); and their bills are generally broad, heavy, and adapted for underwater foraging. Depending on the species, the predominant food may be of animal or vegetable origin. Internally, the males have tracheal tubes that are variably enlarged, and in contrast to the typically rounded and entirely bony structure of the tracheal bulla, this feature is angular and partially membranaceous. No iridescent speculum is present on the wings, but in many species the secondaries are conspicuously white or at least paler than the rest of the wing. The birds nest closely adjacent to water and sometimes even above the water surface, on reed mats or similar vegetation.

North America has five well-distributed species of pochards, one of which (the greater scaup) also extends to the Old World. Additionally, North American tufted duck records have become so numerous in recent years that the inclusion of that species has seemed necessary. One other Old World species, the common pochard (Aythya ferina), has rarely occurred in Alaska, with several Aleutian Islands records in recent years (Byrd et al., 1974).

Waterfowl of North America: SURFACE-FEEDING DUCKS Tribe Anatini

Paul A. Johnsgard — Tue, 27 Apr 2010 09:36:47 PDT

The surface-feeding, dabbling, or similarly described ducks are a group of about thirty-six species of mostly freshwater ducks that occur throughout the world. Many of them are temperate or arctic-breeding species that nest on dry land near freshwater ponds, marshes, rivers, or similar rather shallow bodies of water. Associated with this breeding habitat are their adaptations for foraging by "tipping-up" rather than by diving for food, an ability to land and take off abruptly from small water areas or land, and a moderately good walking ability but reduced perching capabilities as compared with perching ducks. Also unlike perching ducks, iridescent coloration on the wing is limited to the secondary feathers, or in rare cases is lacking altogether.

The surface-feeding ducks are among the most abundant and familiar of all North American ducks and include such popular sporting species as mallards, pintails, wigeons, and various teals. They range in size from less than a pound to more than three pounds and are among the most agile of waterfowl in flight, relying on maneuverability rather than unusual speed to elude danger. The number of North American breeding species is somewhat uncertain, but is at least nine. Additionally, the European wigeon very probably nests occasionally in continental North America, the Baikal teal is possibly a very rare nester, and the Bahama pintail breeds in the West Indies. Further, the "Mexican duck" is often considered to be a separate species from the common mallard, as are the populations called the Florida duck and mottled duck, so these might also be added, bringing the possible total to fourteen. Beyond these, the falcated duck is recognized by the A.O.D. (1957) as belonging on the list of North American birds although there is no evidence for breeding, and in recent years there have been several sight records for the garganey, as well as an occurrence of the Chinese spot-billed duck (Anas poecilorhyncha) on Adak Island (Byrd et al., 1974). Some of the records of falcated duck, Baikal teal, and garganey may well have been the result of escapes from captivity, but it seems likely that others of them represent wild birds, and thus these species are included in this book.

In most respects, the surface-feeding ducks closely resemble the perching ducks in their anatomy and biology, but differ from them in that they are nearly all ground-nesting species that are ill-adapted for perching. Although considerable diversity in bill shape exists among the surface-feeding ducks, most biologists now agree that recognition of a single genus (Anas) is most representative of the close relationships that exist among these species, rather than maintenance of the traditional separate genera for the shovelerlike ducks, the wig~ons, and other subgroups. Similarly, it is quite clear that recognition of separate species of Old World and New World green-winged teals and species recognition for the endemic Mexican, Florida, and Gulf coast populations of mallards are not in keeping with the modem species concept of potentially interbreeding natural populations. Although such changes force some modifications of traditional vernacular names of these populations, these disadvantages seem minor compared to the distortions of natural relationships forced by the retention of traditional nomenclature.

Waterfowl of North America: PERCHING DUCKS Tribe Cairinini

Paul A. Johnsgard — Tue, 27 Apr 2010 09:33:36 PDT

The perching ducks and related gooselike forms are a diverse array of some fourteen species that are largely subtropical to tropical in occurrence. Although they vary in size from as little as about a half a pound in the "pygmy geese" (Nettapus) to more than twenty pounds in the spur-winged geese (Plectropterus), all possess some common features.*These include a tendency toward hole-nesting, especially in trees; sharp claws; associated perching abilities; and long tails that presumably increase braking effectiveness when landing in trees. Nearly all species exhibit extensive iridescent coloration in the body, especially on the upper wing surface; this coloration is often exhibited by females as well as males. As a result, this tribe includes some of the most beautifully arrayed species of the entire family, of which the North American wood duck is an excellent example, as is the closely related Asian mandarin duck (Aix galericulata). The wood duck is the only perching duck that is native to the United States or Canada, but inasmuch as Mexico must be regarded as a part of North America, the inclusion of the muscovy duck as a North American species is fully justified.

Perching ducks, together with all of the following groups of waterfowl included in this book, are representatives of the large anatid subfamily Anatinae. Unlike the whistling ducks, swans, or true geese, species of this subfamily have a tarsal scale pattern that has vertically aligned scutes (scutellate condition) above the base of the middle toe, and the sexes are usually quite different in voice, plumage, and sexual behavior. These sexual differences can be attributed to the weaker and less permanent pair bonds characteristics of true ducks, with a renewal of pair bonds typically occurring each year. As a result, pair-forming behavior tends to be more complex and elaborate in these species, as a dual reflection of the greater and more frequent competition for mates and the need for safeguards in reducing or avoiding mixed pairings between species during the rather hurried pair-forming period. In these species, the males typically assume the initiative in pair-forming activities, and thus they are usually more colorful, more aggressive, and have the more elaborate pair-forming behavior patterns. On the other hand, the females retain a subdued, often concealing plumage pattern, associated with their assumption of most or all incubation and brood-rearing responsibilities. As a result, humans usually find it easy to recognize the distinctively plumaged males of most species, while the females of related species are often so similar that even experienced observers may find it difficult to identify them with certainty.

Following the initiation of incubation, the males in this subfamily typically abandon the females and begin their postnuptial molt, during which they become flightless for a time and usually also acquire a more female-like body plumage. Thus, unlike the species in the subfamily Anserinae, typical ducks have two plumages, and thus two body molts, per year. In males this double molt is most apparent, since the "eclipse" plumage attained following the postnuptial molt is usually less colorful and often quite female-like.

Although in all the species which have so far been studied the female also has a comparable summer molt and plumage, in most cases this plumage is so similar to the winter plumage that separate descriptions are not necessary. In most cases the "eclipse" plumage of males is held for only a few months, presumably to allow the male to regain the more brilliant plumage associated with pair formation as early as possible. In some cases, however, this "nuptial" plumage is not regained until well into winter (e.g., ruddy duck, Baikal teal, blue-winged teal), so that "summer" and "winter" plumages may be more or less recognizable. The situation is further complicated in the oldsquaw, which has a third partial molt in the fall (affecting both sexes but most apparent in the male) and which is restricted to the scapular region. Except in such special cases, the two major plumages of the male are referred to in the species accounts as "nuptial" and "eclipse" plumages, while the "adult" plumage of females refers to both of the comparable breeding and nonbreeding plumages.

The 115 species of waterfowl that belong to the subfamily Anatinae are grouped into a number of tribes, most of which include one or more native North American species. The only major tribe of Anatinae that is not represented in this continent is the shelduck tribe Tadornini, which has representatives in both South America and Eurasia. It is true that there are some old records of Atlantic coast occurrences for the ruddy shelduck (Tadorna ferruginea) and the common shelduck (Tadorna tadorna), as well as a few more recent sight records (Audubon Field Notes, 16:73; American Birds, 26:842; 27 :41), but these are quite possibly the result of escapes from captivity.

Waterfowl of North America: SWANS AND TRUE GEESE Tribe Anserini

Paul A. Johnsgard — Tue, 27 Apr 2010 09:27:01 PDT

The approximately twenty extant species of swans and true geese are, unlike the whistling ducks, primarily of temperate and arctic distribution, especially in the Northern Hemisphere. It is thus not surprising that continental North America may lay claim to at least nine breeding species, or nearly half.of the known total. Additionally, sufficient records of a tenth, the barnacle goose, are known as to warrant its inclusion in the book even though there is no indication that it nests in continental North America. Several additional Old World species of geese and swans have been reported one or more times in North America, but the likelihood of at least some of these being escapes from captivity seems so great that their inclusion seems unjustified. These species include the red-breasted goose (Branta ruficoIlis) , which has been collected in California at least five times and has also been seen in recent years in Texas, Pennsylvania, and Kansas, but is not known to nest nearer than central Siberia. The bean goose (Anser fabalis) has been reliably reported from Alaska (Byrd et aI., 1974), while the smaller pink-footed goose (A. f. brachyrhynchus) has been collected in Massachusetts (Bent, 1925) and seen in Delaware (Audubon Field Notes, 8:10, 9:235). Other Old World species that have been reported, such as the lesser white-fronted goose (Anser erythropus) and the bar-headed goose (Anser indicus), appear to have represented escapes from captivity, although a specimen of the former species was recently shot in Delaware (American Birds 27:597).

Geese and swans are generally large waterfowl that are almost entirely vegetarian in their diets. Swans forage predominantly in water, eating surface vegetation or tipping-up to reach underwater plants, but occasionally resort to eating terrestrial plants on shorelines or even in fields. Geese, however, forage both in water and on land, with some species such as brant foraging exclusively on aquatic life while others rely largely on terrestrial herbaceous plants. In most geese the cutting edges of the upper and lower mandibles are coarsely serrated in the manner of the pinking shears, providing an effective method of clipping off vegetation close to the ground. Like whistling ducks, swans and true geese have a reticulated tarsal pattern, lack iridescent or sexually dimorphic plumage patterns, and form strong, persistent pair bonds. Indeed, the fidelity of swan and goose pairs is legendary, although in actual fact this pairing behavior falls slightly short of their supposed perfect fidelity.

Although some authorities recognize a larger number of genera and species, recent investigators have generally recommended that only two or three swan genera be recognized (Coscoroba, Cygnus, and perhaps Olor) and that the genera of typical true geese be reduced to no more than three (Anser, Branta, and perhaps Nesochen). Likewise, species limits have been enlarged in recent years, so that the Old World and New World representatives of the arctic swans are now usually considered conspecific, the "blue goose" is generally recognized to be nothing more than a color phase of the snow goose, a single species of brant goose is recognized, and although a larger number of Canada goose races have recently been designated they are clearly part of an intergrading series of population complexes.

Waterfowl of North America: WHISTLING DUCKS Tribe Dendrocygnini

Paul A. Johnsgard — Tue, 27 Apr 2010 09:22:05 PDT

Whistling ducks comprise a group of nine species that are primarily of tropical and subtropical distribution. In common with the swans and true geese (which with them comprise the subfamily Anserinae), the included species have a reticulated tarsal surface pattern, lack sexual dimorphism in plumage, produce vocalizations that are similar or identical in both sexes, form relatively permanent pair bonds, and lack complex pair-forming behavior patterns. Unlike the geese and swans, whistling ducks have clear, often melodious whistling voices that are the basis for their group name. The alternative name, tree ducks, is far less appropriate, since few of the species regularly perch or nest in trees. All the species have relatively long legs and large feet that extend beyond the fairly short tail when the birds are in flight. They dive well, and some species obtain much of their food in this manner. Eight species are represented in the genus Dendrocygna, including all three of the species included in this book. A ninth species, the African and Madagascan white-backed duck (Thalassornis leuconotus) , is considered by the author (Johnsgard, 1966) to be an aberrant whistling duck.

Two of the three species included in this book regularly nest in the southern United States, while the third (the Cuban whistling duck) might be regarded as North American on the basis of its occurrence in the West Indies, although it is not known to have ever reached continental North America.

Waterfowl of North America: Identification Key to North American Waterfowl

Paul A. Johnsgard — Tue, 27 Apr 2010 09:19:59 PDT

The key on the following pages provides an efficient means of identifying virtually all North American waterfowl that may be examined in the hand. The procedure for using it is comparable to that used for all such dual-choice or "dichotomous" keys. One simply chooses which of the initial descriptive couplets (A or A') best fits the unknown bird. Having chosen one of these, the pair of descriptive couplets (a and a') immediately below the chosen alternative is next considered, without further regard for the rejected one. Subsequent choices, which are sequentially numbered (1 and 1', 2 and 2', etc.) must then be considered until the name of a species has been reached. In no case will more than eleven choices be required to identify any of the 52 waterfowl species or subspecies represented in the key. After having tentatively determined the identity of the unknown bird, one should refer to the appropriate "Identification" sections of the text, to confirm or reject the initial determination. Illustrations in this book or other references should also be consulted, bearing in mind that sexual or seasonal variations in plumage may exist.

Waterfowl of North America: Hunting and Recreational Values of North American Waterfowl

Paul A. Johnsgard — Tue, 27 Apr 2010 09:18:44 PDT

It is almost as difficult to find individuals opposed to waterfowl conservation as it is to hear Americans speaking out against motherhood or corn on the cob. Yet, in a real sense, it has been the American tradition of unchecked population expansion, taming the wilderness, and converting prairies and marshes into cornfields that has nearly spelled disaster for some of our native waterfowl. Of a wetland area in the United States that originally covered some 127 million acres, nearly 50 million acres have already been drained and lost as waterfowl habitat. Marshes have not only been converted to farmland but also have provided land for expanding suburbs and have been covered with cement or asphalt for roads, airports, and the other hallmarks of modern civilization. All of this has been done in the hallowed name of progress, for the benefits of a greater gross national product, and in hopes of a higher collective standard of living. Unfortunately, waterfowl have had few spokesmen to decry their changing standards of living, and their gross national product can only be measured in terms of the numbers of birds that annually fly southward toward their wintering areas. These numbers, as reflected in annual harvests and changes in season lengths and bag limits, provide a measure of the health of our waterfowl resource. In recent decades that health index has often sagged alarmingly, and a few species have scarcely been able to recover from these setbacks.

Some persons might well pose the questions: "Just how important to our economy is a healthy waterfowl population? So what if one or two species might become extinct, aren't there plenty more to take their places?" It is nothing if not traditional to measure the value of things in terms of dollars, the very lodestone of American values. Thus, there are the annual license fees and "duck stamp" costs paid by some two million hunters-and the costs of ammunition, gas, lodging, and expendable supplies that are used on every hunt. Then there are the depreciation costs on guns, clothes, vehicles, boats, decoys, and all the other special equipment on which the waterfowl hunter lavishes his care and dollars. Costs of raising and training hunting dogs, rental or lease costs for hunting areas, hunting club costs, and similar ancillary expenses all contribute to the overall economic impact of waterfowl hunting. The 1965 National Survey of Hunting and Fishing reported that the average American waterfowl hunter spends over fifty dollars per year on his sport. With more than two million waterfowl hunters in the United States and Canada, at least a hundred million dollars per year would be a minimum economic value of waterfowl hunting.

Waterfowl of North America: Waterfowl Distributions and Migrations in North America

Paul A. Johnsgard — Tue, 27 Apr 2010 09:16:58 PDT

The species of waterfowl breeding in North America have distribution patterns that collectively reflect the past geologic and ecological histories of this continent. In general, our waterfowl species may be grouped into those that are limited (endemic) to North America, those that are shared between North and South America, and those that are shared with Europe and/or Asia. Of the forty-four species known to breed in continental North America, the resulting grouping of breeding distributions is as follows:
Limited to North America: Snow goose (also on Greenland and Wrangel Island) , Ross goose, Canada goose (also on Greenland), wood duck, American wigeon, black duck, blue-winged teal, redhead, canvasback, ringnecked duck, lesser scaup, Labrador duck (extinct), surf scoter, bufflehead, hooded merganser.
Shared with Eurasia: Trumpeter swan (whooper swan), whistling swan (Bewick swan), white-fronted goose, brant goose, gadwall, green-winged teal, mallard, pintail, shoveler, greater scaup, common eider, king eider, harlequin duck, oldsquaw, black scoter, white-winged scoter, common goldeneye, red-breasted merganser, common merganser.
Shared with South America: Fulvous whistling duck, black-bellied whistling duck, muscovy duck, cinnamon teal, masked duck, ruddy duck.
Shared with Asia only: Emperor goose, spectacled eider, Steller eider (rarely to Norway).
Shared with Europe only: Barrow goldeneye (Iceland and Greenland).
Native to Eurasia, introduced into North America: Mute swan.

It is thus clear that the strongest zoogeographic affinities of our waterfowl are with Europe and Asia, since twenty-three out of the forty-four native North American species have .populations shared with one or both of these areas. Only six species are shared with South America, and, of these, the fulvous whistling duck has a more general tropical distribution that includes Africa and southern Asia. Consequently, it would appear that South America has played only a minor role in providing waterfowl stock for North America, and vice versa. Certainly the great number of waterfowl species shared between the North American and Eurasian landmasses can be largely attributed to Pleistocene and post-Pleistocene history. Ploeger (1968) analyzed the distributions of eighteen species of arctic-breeding Anatidae and concluded that both their present distributions and their described geographic variations could be at· tributed to the physical-geographical situation existing in the Northern Hemisphere during Late Glacial times. Only a minority (38 percent) of these species exhibit noticeable geographic variation, and most of the eighteen have breeding ranges that include both North America and Eurasia. The exceptions are three Eurasian geese (red-breasted, bean, and lesser white-fronted geese), three North American geese (Canada, Ross, and snow geese), and the North Atlantic barnacle goose. It is of interest that these are all geese, a group noted for their strongly traditional wintering and breeding grounds, as opposed to the less tradition-bound ducks.

Waterfowl of North America: The Biology of Waterfowl

Paul A. Johnsgard — Tue, 27 Apr 2010 09:13:22 PDT

The term waterfowl, at least as it is applied in North America, is generally restricted to the ducks, geese, and swans of the bird family Anatidae. About 140 species of this group of swimming and diving birds have survived throughout the world to the present day, and four more have become extinct during historical times. Many more species have existed in the past; the fossil record of this family extends back roughly fifty million years to very early Cenozoic times, although very little is known of the actual appearance and structure of the earliest form of waterfowl. Presumably these ancestral birds were semiaquatic, perhaps much like the modern-day species of screamers (Anhimidae), which together with the true waterfowl make up the order Anseriformes. These in turn seem to have been derived from land-adapted and fowl-like birds that later diversified into such groups as pheasants, quails, partridges, turkeys, and other "gallinaceous" species.

In part because of their common evolutionary ancestry, waterfowl and the upland, or gallinaceous, birds have certain similarities in their biology that are more fundamental than the obvious differences in their adaptations to aquatic versus terrestrial habitats. One of the most significant of these common attributes is the rather advanced, or precocial, state in which the young are invariably hatched. This implies that they are well covered with down and thus can better maintain a steady body temperature than can birds hatched naked or nearly so. They also are hatched with their eyes open, and they are sufficiently coordinated so that they can begin feeding on their own in a day or less of leaving the egg. They have a variety of calls and can respond quickly and effectively to calls of their parents that may help to keep the family together and safe from danger. They typically remain together as a cohesive "brood" during the period between hatching and initial flight, or fledging, and during this time they undergo the socialization processes that may be important later in pair formation at the time of sexual maturity. They also learn the local topography and, especially in the case of females, the landmarks necessary to allow the birds to "home" to their natal area at the time of initial nesting.

Unlike most upland game birds, nearly all North American waterfowl are migratory to some degree, and although the timing and general compass-direction tendencies for movement may be innately transmitted from generation to generation, a considerable part of the specific aspects of migration is dependent on a transmission of migratory "traditions" from the older birds to the younger ones by direct experience. This flexibility in migratory behavior accounts for the surprisingly rapid shifts in migratory pathways and stopover points that waterfowl are able to make when major environmental changes occur, such as the establishment of bird refuges, the filling of impoundments, and the like. On the other hand, this adaptability also may cause an area to be "burned out" of its waterfowl use, when disturbance or excessive mortality disrupts the traditional use of an area. This capability for human manipulation of usage by waterfowl in their migratory or wintering areas poses enormous problems for wildlife biologists, who must choose carefully between the desirability of providing safe and attractive areas for use by large numbers of birds and the potential dangers imposed by such congregations: disease' or parasite transmission, crop depredations on nearby private lands, and the encouragement of unrestricted or uncontrolled hunting in areas adjacent to the controlled-usage areas. Interstate and international politics may even become involved, in view of the great economic significance of waterfowl hunting in certain parts of North America.

North America’s Ducks, Geese and Swans in the 21st Century: A 2010 Supplement to Waterfowl of North America

Paul A. Johnsgard — Thu, 22 Apr 2010 15:31:39 PDT

Since the 1975 publication of Waterfowl of North America, a great deal of ornithological literature has appeared concerning North American ducks, geese & swans. The most significant of these are the species accounts in the American Ornithologists’ Union The Birds of North America (B.O.N.A.) series, 46 of which were published between 1993 and 2003, and which include all the species known to breed in the United States and Canada (see references).

Population data of wild species are constantly changing, and sometimes of limited accuracy, but long-term averages or trends are often significant. National population surveys such as the annual U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service’s Breeding Bird Surveys, and annual hunter-kill (“harvest”) surveys by the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service and Canadian Wildlife Service are thus of both immediate and long-term interest.

Text updates for the following species accounts are minimal. I have stressed apparent population trends and identified new major literature sources. I have also modified the majority of the range maps to make them more closely conform to our present-day knowledge of breeding and wintering ranges. The breeding ranges of some species are still inadequately known, such as those of the scoters, which breed in large regions of Canada and Alaska that are still only poorly surveyed. Not only have breeding ranges changed or become clearer, but also many wintering ranges have changed markedly since the 1970s, in conjunction with global warming trends (Johnsgard, 2009; Niven, Butcher & Bancroft, 2009).

Waterfowl of North America: Frontmatter & Preface

Paul A. Johnsgard — Thu, 22 Apr 2010 15:23:39 PDT

Contents
Lists of tables and maps
List of plates
Preface

It was with a considerable degree of hesitation that, during the winter of 1970-71, I sat down and contemplated the scope and structure of a possible book on the waterfowl of North America. On my bookshelf behind me were copies of A. C. Bent's Life Histories of North American Wild Fowl, F. H. Kortright's The Ducks, Geese, and Swans of North America, and Jean Delacour's The Waterfowl of the World. My task, as I saw it, was to try to develop a book that might be useful to the greatest number of people without seriously overlapping with any of these great works. Bent's classic volumes had admirably summarized the early "life history" information. Kortright's book has been the standard reference for waterfowl illustrations and plumage descriptions for the past thirty years. Delacour's multivolume monograph obviously commanded sufficient authority to render unnecessary detailed consideration of taxonomic questions. My own earlier books on waterfowl behavior (Handbook of Waterfowl Behavior) and waterfowl biology Waterfowl: Their Biology and Natural History) made superfluous additional descriptions of sexual behavior patterns or general comparative reviews of ecology and breeding biology.

What remained to be done, I finally decided, was to provide an up-to-date series of accounts dealing with the ecology and reproductive biology of every waterfowl species presently known to breed on the North American continent. In this way, the recent field studies of three separate groups, the wildlife biologists, ecologists, and ethologists, might be integrated. I hoped to make the book understandable to nonprofessionals, but still retain sufficient specific information as to make it a useful reference for students and professional waterfowl biologists. Secondly, information on both field and in-hand identification of all waterfowl species likely to be encountered in North America seemed to me to be equally important, especially in view of the increasing requirements for hunters to recognize quite precisely what they shoot or attempt to shoot. Also, practical means of accurate identification of waterfowl, and the further determination of waterfowl as to age and sex, are of foremost importance to biologists concerned with waterfowl management. These two goals thus became the nucleus for the development of the book. Illustrative materials in the form of distribution maps and photographs of live birds were added to supplement written descriptions of ranges, plumages, and identification criteria. Except where otherwise indicated all photographs and drawings are mine.