Copyright (c) 2007 University of Nebraska - Lincoln All rights reserved. http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook Recent documents in The Handbook: Prevention and Control of Wildlife Damage en-us Wed, 31 Jan 2007 01:44:25 PST 3600 http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/83 http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/83 Mon, 29 Jan 2007 13:12:14 PST This section contains specimen labels of various products used for controlling wildlife damage. Products included here were selected as examples of registered vertebrate pesticides. Space limitations make it impossible to include labels from every available product. Inclusion of trade names, proprietary products, or company names does not imply endorsement by the University of Nebraska Cooperative Extension, USDA-APHIS-Animal Damage Control, or the Great Plains Agricultural Council. Similarly, no discrimination is intended against products or companies not included. Since pesticide labels change frequently, be sure to obtain, read, and follow current label directions when using any pesticide. Check with appropriate federal and state authorities to find out if a particular product is registered in your state. Scott E. Hygnstrom http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/82 http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/82 Mon, 29 Jan 2007 13:09:57 PST Turtles ( Terrapene carolina) occur on all continents except Antarctica. Any permanent body of water is a potential home for turtles. Turtles are seldom a pest to people. Most turtles are not protected by state laws. James F. Fowler http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/81 http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/81 Mon, 29 Jan 2007 13:04:00 PST Rattlesnakes (Crotalus viridis viridis)are distinctly American serpents. There are 15 species of rattlesnakes in the United States and 25 in Mexico. Rattlesnakes are usually identified by their warning rattle -- a hiss or buzz -- made by the rattles at the tip of their tails. Rattlesnakes occur only in North and South America and range from sea level to perhaps 11,000 feet (over 3,000 m) in California and 14,000 feet (4,000 m) in Mexico, although they are not abundant at the higher elevations. Young or small species of rodents comprise the bulk of the food supply for most rattlesnakes. When a rattlesnake strikes its prey or enemy, the paired fangs unfold from the roof of its mouth. The greatest danger to humans from rattlesnakes is that small children may be struck while rolling and tumbling in the grass. Most species of rattlesnakes are not considered threatened or endangered. Walter E. Howard http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/80 http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/80 Mon, 29 Jan 2007 12:59:32 PST Of the many kinds of snakes (Pituophis melanoleucus) found in the United States, only the following are harmful: rattlesnakes, copperheads, cottonmouths, coral snakes, and sea snakes. Some species of nonpoisonous snakes occur throughout several states, but the majority have only limited ranges. Snakes are not very mobile, and even though some are fairly adaptable, most have specific habitat requirements. All snakes are predators, and the different species eat many different kinds of food. Snakes are specialized animals, having elongated bodies and no legs. A nonpoisonous snake bite has no venom and can do no more harm than frighten the victim. In most states, snakes are considered nongame wildlife and are protected by state law unless they are about to cause personal or property damage. James L. Byford http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/79 http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/79 Mon, 29 Jan 2007 12:53:12 PST Salamanders (Ambystoma tigrinumare) are smooth-skinned amphibians with no skin covering such as scales, hair, or feathers. There are several dozen kinds of salamanders found in the United States, but most occur only in parts of one or several states. Salamanders depend on water and moisture for their existence. All salamanders are predators. Salamanders generally are active when there is no sunshine--at night or on cloudy, rainy days. Salamanders do not cause damage to people or property. James L. Byford http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/78 http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/78 Mon, 29 Jan 2007 12:48:38 PST Frogs and toads are amphibians with four legs and no tail. At least 85 species of frogs are native to the United States, and there are three well-established exotic species. Frogs occur in almost all nonmarine habitats. Most frogs have a two-phased life cycle, including an aquatic larval form (tadpole) and a terrestrial or semiaquatic adult form. Although some species spend most of their adult lives away from water, most frogs native to North America must return to water to lay eggs. The greatest potential for economic damage is at fish farms and hatcheries. Laws pertaining to frogs vary from state to state. Paul E. Moler http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/77 http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/77 Mon, 29 Jan 2007 12:43:10 PST Crayfish, also called crawfish, crawcrab, crab, stonecrab, crawdad, creekcrab, and other local names, are native to fresh waters on all continents except Africa, where they have been widely introduced. Most damage associated with crayfish is the result of crayfish burrowing in home lawns. Crayfish may be protected by law in some states. James F. Fowler http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/76 http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/76 Mon, 29 Jan 2007 12:38:04 PST The American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis) is the most common of two crocodilians native to the United States and is one of 22 crocodilian species worldwide. The American alligator is found in wetlands throughout the coastal plain of the southeastern United States. Alligators can be found in almost any type of fresh water, but population densities are greatest in wetlands with an abundant food supply and adjacent marsh habitat for nesting. Alligators are exclusively carnivorous and prey upon whatever creatures are most available. Alligators are ectothermic -- they rely on external sources of heat to maintain body temperature. Damage by alligators is usually limited to injuries or death to humans or domestic animals. The American alligator is federally classified as "threatened due to similarity of appearance" to other endangered and threatened crocodilians. Allan R. Woodward http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/75 http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/75 Mon, 29 Jan 2007 12:38:02 PST Woodpeckers (Melanerpes erythrocephalusand Picoides pubescens) belong to the order Piciformes and the family Picidae, which also includes flickers and sapsuckers. Woodpeckers are found throughout the United States. Because they are dependent on trees for shelter and food, woodpeckers are found mostly in or on the edge of wooded areas. Most woodpeckers feed on tree-living or wood-boring insects; however, some feed on a variety of other insects. Woodpeckers are an interesting and familiar group of birds. Woodpecker damage to buildings is a relatively infrequent problem nationwide, but may be significant regionally and locally. Woodpeckers are classified as migratory, nongame birds and are protected by the Federal Migratory Bird Treaty Act. Rex E. Marsh http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/74 http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/74 Mon, 29 Jan 2007 09:10:46 PST The term waterfowl is properly applied only to ducks, geese, and swans. In North America, most waterfowl are migratory, flying long distances in the spring and fall between the summer breeding grounds and wintering areas. Waterfowl, as their name implies, are most often found near water. The food of individual waterfowl species ranges from fish to insects to plants in various combinations, depending on availability. Waterfowl are normally monogamous and solitary nesters. Goose problems in urban and suburban areas are primarily caused by giant Canada geese, which are probably the most adaptable of all waterfowl. In the United States, migratory birds, including most waterfowl, as well as their nests and eggs, are federally protected (50 CFR 10.12) by the Migratory Bird Treaty Act (MBTA) (16 USC). Edward C. Cleary http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/73 http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/73 Mon, 29 Jan 2007 09:06:43 PST Eight members of the swallow family Hirundinidae breed in North America: the tree swallow (Tachycineta bicolor), violet-green swallow (Tachycineta thalassina), purple martin (Progne subis), bank swallow (Riparia riparia), northern rough-winged swallow (Stelgidopteryx serripennis), barn swallow (Hirundo rustica), cave swallow (Hirundo fulva), and the cliff swallow (Hirundo pyrrhonota). Cliff and barn swallows are found throughout most of North America. Four basic conditions are found near most cliff and barn swallow nest sites: (1) an open habitat for foraging, (2) a suitable surface for nest attachment beneath an overhang or ledge, (3) a supply of mud of the proper consistency for nest building, and (4) a body of fresh water for drinking. All swallows are insectivores, catching a variety of insects. Cliff and barn swallows winter in South America. Swallows have a homing tendency toward previous nesting sites. Cliff swallow nests are gourd-shaped, enclosed structures with an entrance tunnel that opens downward. Cliff swallows usually begin laying eggs before the entrance tunnel is completed. Renesting will occur if nests or eggs are destroyed. W. Paul Gorenzel http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/72 http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/72 Mon, 29 Jan 2007 09:00:57 PST Starlings ( Sturnus vulgaris) are robin-sized birds weighing about 3.2 ounces (90 g). Since their introduction into New York in the 1890s, starlings have spread across the continental United States, northward to Alaska and the southern half of Canada, and southward into northern Mexico. Starlings are found in a wide variety of habitats including cities, towns, farms, ranches, open woodlands, fields, and lawns. Starlings consume a variety of foods, including fruits and seeds of both wild and cultivated varieties. European starlings were brought into the United States from Europe. Starlings are frequently considered pests because of the problems they cause, especially at livestock facilities and near urban roosts. European starlings are not protected by federal law and in most cases not by state law. Ron J. Johnson http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/71 http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/71 Mon, 29 Jan 2007 08:54:11 PST The house or English sparrow (Passer domesticus) is a brown, chunky bird about 5 3/4 inches (15 cm) long, and very common in human-made habitats. The house sparrow was first introduced in Brooklyn, New York, from England in 1850 and has spread throughout the continent. The house sparrow is found in nearly every habitat except dense forest, alpine, and desert environments. House sparrows are primarily granivorous. Breeding can occur in any month but is most common from March through August. House sparrows consume grains in fields and in storage. The house sparrow is afforded no legal protection by federal statutes because it is an introduced species. William D. Fitzwater http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/70 http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/70 Mon, 29 Jan 2007 08:47:38 PST White-crowned sparrows (Zonotrichia leucophrys) are distinguished by their pink or yellowish bill, erect posture, gray throat and breast, and prominent crown streaked with black and white. Geographic races, including the mountain (Z. l. oriantha), Gambel's (Z. l. gambelii), Nuttall's (Z. L. nuttalli), and Puget Sound white-crowned sparrow (Z. l. pugetensis) show minor differences in head pattern, bill color, and song. Their songs vary geographically, but consist primarily of clear whistles. White-crowned sparrows are abundant in the western United States. They breed primarily in Alaska and Canada and winter in the western and southern United States and Mexico. White-crowned sparrows are birds of the chaparral, brushy river bottoms, brush piles, rubbish heaps, dense weed fields, and fence rows. Food of white-crowned sparrows averages 75% plant and 25% animal matter. Gambel's white-crowned sparrows appear in California valleys in September and reach their maximum density during October, becoming injurious to crops in localized areas. The crowned sparrows are involved in crop depredations over a wide area and upon a great variety of crops. Crowned sparrows are classified as migratory nongame birds in the Code of Federal Regulations. Jerry P. Clark http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/69 http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/69 Mon, 29 Jan 2007 08:43:48 PST Pigeons (Columbia livia) typically have a gray body with a whitish rump, two black bars on the secondary wing feathers, a broad black band on the tail, and red feet. Pigeons are found throughout the United States (including Hawaii), southern Canada, and Mexico. Pigeons are highly dependent on humans to provide them with food and sites for roosting, loafing, and nesting. Pigeons are primarily grain and seed eaters and will subsist on spilled or improperly stored grain. The common pigeon was introduced into the United States as a domesticated bird, but many escaped and formed feral populations. Pigeon droppings deface and accelerate the deterioration of buildings and increase the cost of maintenance. Feral pigeons are not protected by federal law and most states do not afford them protection. David E. Williams http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/68 http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/68 Mon, 29 Jan 2007 08:41:06 PST Magpies (Pica pica and P. nuttalli) have lived in close association with humans for centuries. Magpies are found in western North America. Magpies are associated with the dry, cool climatic regions of North America. Magpies are omnivorous and very opportunistic, a characteristic typical of other corvids. Magpies, like other corvids, are intelligent birds. Magpies have come into conflict with humans in North America for quite some time. Magpies are protected as migratory nongame birds under the Federal Migratory Bird Treaty Act. Thomas C. Hall http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/67 http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/67 Mon, 29 Jan 2007 08:39:18 PST The Mississippi kite (Ictinia mississippiensis) is a member of the family Accipitridae, a group of diurnal birds of prey. Mississippi kites nest in Arizona, New Mexico, Oklahoma, Texas, southeastern Colorado, southern Kansas, and the eastern states from southern Missouri to South Carolina. Mississippi kites are primarily insectivorous. Most Mississippi kites probably winter in Argentina and Brazil. Some Mississippi kites create problems by diving at and frightening people who venture near their nests. Mississippi kites are fully protected under the Federal Migratory Bird Treaty Act (1918) and state regulations. William F. Andelt http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/66 http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/66 Mon, 29 Jan 2007 08:37:37 PST The scrub (or California) jay (Aphelocoma coerulescens) is distinguished by its crestless head, olive-gray back, and white throat, outlined in blue. Scrub jays are found in the western United States, parts of Mexico, and in central Florida. Scrub jays commonly inhabit the oak and brush-covered foothills of the mountains, timbered canyons, river bottoms, oak-lined sloughs and creeks, as well as the shade trees and dense shrubbery of residential areas. Beal (1910) reported that the diet of the scrub jay consisted of 73% plant and 27% animal matter. The plant matter was about one-third fruits and berries, and two-thirds acorns, nuts, and grain. Nests are usually found on brush-covered hillsides or in creek bottoms in low bushes, shrubs, and trees. Jays are omnivorous and therefore may damage several agricultural crops such as nuts, fruits, grains, peas, corn, and berries. Scrub jays are classified as migratory nongame birds in the Code of Federal Regulations. Jerry P. Clark http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/65 http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/65 Mon, 29 Jan 2007 08:33:54 PST House finches (Carpodacus mexicanus), also known as linnets, are about the same size as house sparrows. House finches are abundant residents throughout the western United States and Mexico. The house finch is most abundant in the warm valleys of California near cultivated lands. House finches are primarily seed eaters, and before the introduction of cultivated fruits, they probably lived largely on weed seeds. House finches nest in a great variety of places. House finches peck and feed on practically all deciduous fruits, berries, grains, vegetable seed, and flower seed. House finches are classified as migratory nongame birds in the Code of Federal Regulations. Jerry P. Clark http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/64 http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/64 Mon, 29 Jan 2007 08:31:10 PST Horned larks (Eremophila alpestris) are ground-dwelling birds that are slightly larger than house sparrows. They are brown, with a yellowish face, black breast, black "whiskers," and two small black "horns." Horned larks breed widely throughout North America, from northern Alaska to southern Mexico. In certain parts of California the horned lark is a serious crop pest. The food of the horned lark consists largely of seeds picked up from the ground. Vegetable crops damaged by horned larks include beets, broccoli, carrots, lettuce, peas, spinach, and tomatoes. Other field and truck crops damaged are alfalfa, grain, sugar beets, cantaloupes, and watermelons. Horned larks are classified as migratory nongame birds in the Code of Federal Regulations. Jerry P. Clark http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/63 http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/63 Mon, 29 Jan 2007 08:28:27 PST Hawks and owls are birds of prey and are frequently referred to as raptors-- a term that includes the falcons, eagles, vultures, kites, ospreys, northern harriers, and crested caracaras. There are two main groups of hawks: accipiters and buteos. Accipiters are the forest-dwelling hawks. North American species include the northern goshawk (Accipiter gentilis), Cooper's hawk (Accipiter cooperii), and sharpshinned hawk (Accipiter striatus). The buteos are known as the broadwinged or soaring hawks. They are the most commonly observed raptors in North America. Typical species include the red-tailed hawk (Buteo jamaicensis), red-shouldered hawk (Buteo lineatus), broad-winged hawk (Buteo platypterus), Swainson's hawk (Buteo swainsoni), rough-legged hawk (Buteo lagopus), and ferruginous hawk (Buteo regalis). Scott E. Hygnstrom http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/62 http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/62 Mon, 29 Jan 2007 08:24:48 PST The term gull refers to members of a group of 23 North American bird species that belong to the family Laridae, subfamily Larinae. The herring (Larus argentatus) and ringbilled (L. delawarensis) gulls are the most common and widespread of the species. Most gulls nest in colonies on sand and gravel-covered shorelines and islands. Gulls feed on land or water on aquatic animals, terrestrial invertebrates and small vertebrates, plant remains, carrion, and refuse. Increasing gull populations in North America during the past century have led to a variety of problems for different segments of society. Victor E.F. Solman http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/61 http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/61 Mon, 29 Jan 2007 08:21:46 PST Eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus and Aquila chrysaetos) are the largest bird of prey in North America. Golden eagles in North America occur in greatest numbers from Alaska southward throughout the mountain and intermountain regions of the West and into Mexico. Eagles frequent a wide variety of habitats. Although regional and seasonal differences in food habits exist, golden eagle prey consists mostly of small mammals such as jackrabbits, cottontails, prairie dogs, and ground squirrels. Eagle courtship displays consist of a series of "roller coaster" dives and other aerial maneuvers. Juvenile golden eagles leave the nesting territory as early as May in the Southwest and as late as October or November in the North. Research indicates that golden eagles are maintaining static populations in areas undisturbed by humans. Golden eagles are more likely to prey on livestock than are bald eagles. Both bald and golden eagles and their nests and nest sites are protected by the federal Bald Eagle Protection Act and state regulations. Bart W. O'Gara http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/60 http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/60 Mon, 29 Jan 2007 08:20:02 PST The American crow (<I>Corvus brachyrhynchos</I>) is one of America's best-known birds. American crows are widely distributed over much of North America. American crows do best in a mixture of open fields where food can be found and woodlots where there are trees for nesting and roosting. Crows are omnivorous, eating almost anything, and they readily adapt food habits to changing seasons and available food supply. Crows are among the most intelligent of birds. Experiments indicate that American crows can count to three or four, are good at solving puzzles, have good memories, employ a diverse and behaviorally complex range of vocalizations, and quickly learn to associate various noises and symbols with food. Complaints associated with crow damage to agriculture were more common in the 1940s than they are today. Crows are protected by the Migratory Bird Treaty Act, a federal act resulting from a formal treaty signed by the United States, Canada, and Mexico. Ron J. Johnson http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/59 http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/59 Mon, 29 Jan 2007 08:14:58 PST The term blackbird loosely refers to a diverse group of about 10 species of North American birds that belong to the subfamily Icterinae. Identification, range, habitat, food habits, general biology, and damage to crops of Red-winged Blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus), Common Grackles (Quiscalus quiscula), Great-tailed Grackles (Quiscalus mexicanus), Brown-headed Cowbirds (Molothrus ater), Yellow-headed Blackbirds (Xanthocephalus xanthocephalus), Brewer's Blackbirds (Euphagus cyanocephalus), and Rusty Blackbirds (Euphagus carolinus). Richard A. Dolbeer http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/58 http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/58 Mon, 29 Jan 2007 08:14:55 PST Birds, especially migratory birds, provide enjoyment and recreation for many and greatly enhance the quality of our lives. These colorful components of natural ecosystems are often studied, viewed, photographed, hunted, and otherwise enjoyed. Unfortunately, bird activities sometimes conflict with human interests. Birds may depredate agricultural crops, create health hazards, and compete for limited resources with other more favorable wildlife species. The management of bird populations or the manipulation of bird habitats to minimize such conflicts is an important aspect of wildlife management. Problems associated with large concentrations of birds can often be reduced through techniques of dispersal or relocation of such concentrations. Thurman W. Booth http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/57 http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/57 Mon, 29 Jan 2007 08:10:14 PST Reduction of the damage caused by fish-eating birds requires accurate bird identification and some knowledge of avian biology and habits. The open-water areas and large concentrations of aquatic livestock at aquaculture facilities are natural attractants to many birds. Birds can have a significant economic impact on the culture of aquatic products including fish, shellfish, crustaceans, and other invertebrates. For our purpose here, we will refer to these birds as fish-eating birds, and the aquatic products as fish. W. Paul Gorenzel http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/56 http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/56 Mon, 29 Jan 2007 08:06:25 PST Birds are a serious hazard to aviation. A bird or a flock of birds that suddenly rises from a runway or surrounding area may collide with incoming or departing aircraft and cause the aircraft to crash, possibly resulting in the loss of human life. Bird collision with aircraft is commonly known as "bird strike." Damage caused to aircraft usually results from collision of one or more birds with the engines and/or fuselage. Although most bird strikes do not result in crashes, they do involve expensive structural and mechanical damage to aircraft. The incidence of this problem worldwide makes bird strike a serious economic problem. Alfred J. Godin http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/55 http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/55 Mon, 29 Jan 2007 08:04:46 PST The shrew (Sorex cinereus) is a small, mouse-sized mammal with an elongated snout, a dense fur of uniform color, small eyes, and five clawed toes on each foot. Shrews are broadly distributed throughout the world and North America. Shrews vary widely in habitat preferences throughout North America. Shrews are in the taxonomic order Insectivora. Shrews are among the world's smallest mammals. Most species of shrews do not have significant negative impacts and are not abundant enough to be considered pests (Schmidt 1984). Robert H. Schmidt http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/54 http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/54 Mon, 29 Jan 2007 08:03:04 PST Three major species of jackrabbits occur in North America: Blacktail jackrabbit (Lepus californicus), whitetail jackrabbits (L. townsendii), and showshoe hare (L. americanus). The whitetail jackrabbit is found mainly in the north central and northwestern United States and no further south than the extreme north central part of New Mexico and southern Kansas. Members of the genus Lepus are born well-furred and able to move about. Hares consume 1/2 to 1 pound (1.1 to 2.2 kg) of green vegetation each day. Jackrabbits are considered nongame animals in most states and are not protected by state game laws. James E. Knight http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/53 http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/53 Mon, 29 Jan 2007 07:59:16 PST Rabbits (Sylvilagus floridanus) usually can be accepted as interesting additions to the backyard or rural landscape if control techniques are applied correctly. Under some unusual circumstances, control of damage may be difficult. There are 13 species of cottontail rabbits (genus Sylvilagus), nine of which are found in various sections of North America north of Mexico. The eastern cottontail's range includes the entire United States east of the Rocky Mountains and introductions further west. Cottontails do not distribute themselves evenly across the landscape. Rabbits live only 12 to 15 months, and probably only one rabbit in 100 lives to see its third fall, yet they make the most of the time available to them. The appetite of a rabbit can cause problems every season of the year. In most states, rabbits are classified as game animals and are protected as such at all times except during the legal hunting season. Scott R. Craven http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/52 http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/52 Mon, 29 Jan 2007 07:57:00 PST The pronghorn (Antilocapra americana) is not a true antelope but in a family by itself (Antilocapridae). It is native only to North America. Pronghorns currently have a scattered but widespread distribution throughout western North America. Pronghorns thrive in short and mixed grasslands and sagebrush grasslands. Pronghorns eat a variety of plants, mostly forbs and browse. Pronghorns depend on their eyesight and speed to escape enemies. Pronghorns sometimes cause damage to grain fields, alfalfa, and haystacks during the winter. Pronghorns have game-animal status in all of the western states. Sanford D. Schemnitz http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/51 http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/51 Mon, 29 Jan 2007 07:54:11 PST Wild pigs (Sus scrofa) include both feral hogs (domestic swine that have escaped captivity) and wild boar, native to Eurasia but introduced to North America to interbreed with feral hogs. Christopher Columbus first introduced members of the family Suidae into North America in 1493 in the West Indies (Towne and Wentworth 1950). A variety of habitats, from tidal marshes to mountain ranges, are suitable for wild pigs. Types of food vary greatly depending on the location and time of year. Wild pigs are intelligent animals and readily adapt to changing conditions. Wild pigs can cause a variety of damage. Wild pigs are game mammals in California, Texas, Tennessee, North Carolina, Puerto Rico, Hawaii, and Florida (Wood and Barrett 1979, Mayer and Brisbin 1991). Reginald H. Barrett http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/50 http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/50 Mon, 29 Jan 2007 07:50:41 PST An opossum (Didelphis virginiana) is a whitish or grayish mammal about the size of a house cat. Opossums are found in eastern, central, and west coast states. Habitats are diverse, ranging from arid to moist, wooded to open fields. Foods preferred by opossums are animal matter, mainly insects or carrion. Opossums usually live alone, having a home range of 10 to 50 acres (4 to 20 ha). Although opossums may be considered desirable as game animals, certain individuals may be a nuisance near homes where they may get into garbage, bird feeders, or pet food. Laws protecting opossums vary from state to state. Jeffrey J. Jackson http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/49 http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/49 Mon, 29 Jan 2007 07:48:49 PST Yates and Pedersen (1982) list seven North American species of moles. They are the eastern mole (Scalopus aquaticus), hairy-tailed mole (Parascalops breweri), star-nosed mole (Condylura cristata), broad-footed mole (Scapanus latimanus), Townsend's mole (Scapanus townsendii), coast mole (Scapanus orarius), and shrew mole (Neurotrichus gibbsii). Out of the seven species that occur in North America, three inhabit lands east of the Rocky Mountains (Yates and Pedersen 1982). The mole lives in the seclusion of underground burrows, coming to the surface only rarely, and then often by accident. The teeth of a mole indicate the characteristics of its food and general behavior. Moles prefer loose, moist soil abounding in grubs and earthworms. Moles remove many damaging insects and grubs from lawns and gardens. However, their burrowing habits disfigure lawns and parks, destroy flower beds, tear up the roots of grasses, and create havoc in small garden plots. Moles are unprotected in most states. F. Robert Henderson http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/48 http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/48 Mon, 29 Jan 2007 07:44:34 PST The elk is a large, powerful animal with an adult weight averaging over 400 pounds (180 kg). The Rocky Mountain elk (Cervus elaphus nelsoni) is found in the Rocky Mountain states and in scattered locations in the Midwest and East. Although elk once roamed freely into lower elevation grasslands, they are now found primarily close to heavily forested areas that are dotted with natural or human-made (clear-cut) openings. Elk graze on grasses and forbs, and browse on shrubs, tree seedlings, and saplings. Weather and human activities influence elk activity. Elk commonly impact agricultural resources by competing with domestic livestock for pasture and damaging cereal and hay crops, ornamental plants, orchards, and livestock fences. Plants browsed by elk have a characteristic appearance. Elk are protected and classified as a game animal in states and provinces where they are sufficiently abundant. In some situations, only one technique for controlling elk damage is necessary. David S. deCalesta http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/47 http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/47 Mon, 29 Jan 2007 07:41:06 PST Deer (Odocoileus virginianus) are probably the most widely distributed and best-recognized large mammals in North America. Deer are even-toed ungulates of the family Cervidae. The white-tailed deer is found in every state in the United States except perhaps Alaska and Utah. Deer are creatures of the forest edge rather than the dense, old-growth forest. Browse (leaves, stems, and buds of woody plants) is generally available all year and is a staple food for deer. Breeding occurs from October to January depending on latitude. Deer damage a wide variety of row crops, forage crops, vegetables, fruit trees, nursery stock, and ornamentals, as well as stacked hay. Deer are protected year-round in all states and provinces, with the exception of legal harvest during appropriate big-game hunting seasons. Where deer are abundant or crops are particularly valuable, fencing may be the only way to effectively minimize deer damage. Scott R. Craven http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/46 http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/46 Mon, 29 Jan 2007 07:38:17 PST Despite their ecological value, bats (Myotis lucifugus) are relentlessly and unjustifiably persecuted. Bats, the only mammals that truly fly, belong to the order Chiroptera. Bats in North America are virtually all insectivorous, feeding on a variety of flying insects (exceptions among house bats were noted previously). Most North American bats emit high frequency sounds (ultrasound) inaudible to humans and similar to sonar, in order to avoid obstacles, locate and capture insect prey, and to communicate. Bats often fly about swimming pools, from which they drink or catch insects. Bats use roosting niches that are indoors (human dwellings, outbuildings, livestock quarters, warehouses), semi-enclosed (loading docks, entrance foyers), partially sheltered (porches, carports, pavilions, highway underpasses, bridges), and open structural areas (window shutters, signs). Surface areas on walls, under loose woodwork, between bricks and around other bat entryways often have a smooth, polished appearance. Disturbing sounds may be heard from vocalizations and grooming, scratching, crawling, or climbing in attics, under eaves, behind walls, and between floors. Fecal pellets indicate the presence of animals and are found on attic floors, in wall recesses, and outside the house at its base. Several arthropods (fungivores, detritivores, predators, and bat ectoparasites) are often associated with colonies of bats in buildings. Bats are distinct from most vertebrate pests that inhabit human dwellings because of the potential for transmitting rabies -- a viral infection of mammals that is usually transmitted via the bite of an infected animal. Rabies is the most important public health hazard associated with bats. The lethal control of bats, even when there is a proven potential danger to humans, often is subjected to careful scrutiny and interagency coordination. Arthur M. Greenhall http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/45 http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/45 Mon, 29 Jan 2007 07:34:51 PST The armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus) is a rather interesting and unusual animal that has a protective armor of "horny" material on its head, body, and tail. The armadillo ranges from south Texas to the southeastern tip of New Mexico, through Oklahoma, the southeastern corner of Kansas and the southwestern corner of Missouri, most of Arkansas, and southwestern Mississippi. The armadillo prefers dense, shady cover such as brush, woodlands, forests, and areas adjacent to creeks and rivers. More than 90% of the armadillo's diet is made up of insects and their larvae. The armadillo is active primarily from twilight through early morning hours in the summer. Most armadillo damage occurs as a result of their rooting in lawns, golf courses, vegetable gardens, and flower beds. Armadillos are unprotected in most states. Donald W. Hawthorne http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/44 http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/44 Fri, 26 Jan 2007 11:30:20 PST Two species of wolves occur in North America, gray wolves (Canis lupus) and red wolves (Canis rufus). During the 1800s, gray wolves ranged over the North American continent as far south as central Mexico. Gray wolves occupy boreal forests and forest/agricultural edge communities in Minnesota, northern Wisconsin, and northern Michigan. Mech (1970) reported that gray wolves prey mainly on large animals including white-tailed deer, mule deer, moose, caribou, elk, Dall sheep, bighorn sheep, and beaver. Gray wolves are highly social, often living in packs of two to eight or more individuals. The ability of wolves to kill cattle, sheep, poultry, and other livestock is well documented (Young and Goldman 1944, Carbyn 1983, Fritts et al. 1992). William J. Paul http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/43 http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/43 Fri, 26 Jan 2007 11:08:52 PST Weasels (Mustela nivalis and M. erminea) belong to the Mustelidae family, which also includes mink, martens, fishers, wolverines, badgers, river otters, black-footed ferrets, and four species of skunks. Three species of weasels live in North America. Some authors report finding weasels only in places with abundant water, although small rodents, suitable as food, were more abundant in surrounding habitat. The weasel family belongs to the order Carnivora. Weasels are active in both winter and summer; they do not hibernate. Occasionally weasels raid poultry houses at night and kill or injure domestic fowl. F. Robert Henderson http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/42 http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/42 Fri, 26 Jan 2007 11:07:21 PST The skunk (Mephitis mephitis and Spilogale putorius), a member of the weasel family, is represented by four species in North America. The skunk has short, stocky legs and proportionately large feet equipped with well-developed claws that enable it to be very adept at digging. The striped skunk is common throughout the United States and Canada. Adult skunks begin breeding in late February. Skunks inhabit clearings, pastures, and open lands bordering forests. Skunks eat plant and animal foods in about equal amounts during fall and winter. Skunks become a nuisance when their burrowing and feeding habits conflict with humans. Striped skunks are not protected by law in most states, but the spotted skunk is fully protected in some. James E. Knight http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/41 http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/41 Fri, 26 Jan 2007 11:03:51 PST River otters (Lutra canadensis) are best known for their continuous and playful behavior, their aesthetic value, and the value of their durable, high-quality fur. River otters occur throughout North America except the arctic slopes, the arid portions of the Southwest, and the intensive agricultural and industrialized areas of the midwestern United States. The diet of the river otter throughout its range is primarily fish. The reproductive biology of river otters and all other weasels is complex because of a characteristic known as delayed implantation. The presence of river otter(s) around or in a fish hatchery, aquaculture, or fish culture facility is a good indication that a damage problem is imminent. The river otter is listed in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Flora and Fauna (CITES). Edward P. Hill http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/40 http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/40 Fri, 26 Jan 2007 11:02:18 PST The raccoon (Procyon lotor) is found throughout the United States, with the exception of the higher elevations of mountainous regions and some areas of the arid Southwest. Raccoons prefer hardwood forest areas near water. Raccoons are omnivorous, eating both plant and animal foods. Raccoons may cause damage or nuisance problems in a variety of ways, and their distinctive tracks often provide evidence of their involvement in damage situations. Raccoons are protected furbearers in most states, with seasons established for running, hunting, or trapping. Edward K. Boggess http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/39 http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/39 Fri, 26 Jan 2007 10:58:45 PST The mountain lion (cougar, puma, catamount, panther; Fig. 1) is the largest cat native to North America. The mountain lion (Felis concolor) can be found in a variety of habitats including coniferous forests, wooded swamps, tropical forests, open grasslands, chaparral, brushlands, and desert edges. Mountain lions are carnivorous. The range of the mountain lion in North America. Mountain lions are shy, elusive, and primarily nocturnal animals that occasionally are active during daylight hours. Mountain lions are predators on sheep, goats, cattle, and horses. House cats, dogs, pigs, and poultry are also prey. James E. Knight