The Handbook: Prevention and Control of Wildlife Damage

SPECIMEN LABELS

Scott E. Hygnstrom — Mon, 29 Jan 2007 13:12:14 PST

This section contains specimen labels of various products used for controlling wildlife damage. Products included here were selected as examples of registered vertebrate pesticides. Space limitations make it impossible to include labels from every available product. Inclusion of trade names, proprietary products, or company names does not imply endorsement by the University of Nebraska Cooperative Extension, USDA-APHIS-Animal Damage Control, or the Great Plains Agricultural Council. Similarly, no discrimination is intended against products or companies not included. Since pesticide labels change frequently, be sure to obtain, read, and follow current label directions when using any pesticide. Check with appropriate federal and state authorities to find out if a particular product is registered in your state.

TURTLES

James F. Fowler et al. — Mon, 29 Jan 2007 13:09:57 PST

Turtles ( Terrapene carolina) occur on all continents except Antarctica. Any permanent body of water is a potential home for turtles. Turtles are seldom a pest to people. Most turtles are not protected by state laws.

RATTLESNAKES (Crotalus viridis viridis)

Walter E. Howard — Mon, 29 Jan 2007 13:04:00 PST

Rattlesnakes (Crotalus viridis viridis)are distinctly American serpents. There are 15 species of rattlesnakes in the United States and 25 in Mexico. Rattlesnakes are usually identified by their warning rattle — a hiss or buzz — made by the rattles at the tip of their tails. Rattlesnakes occur only in North and South America and range from sea level to perhaps 11,000 feet (over 3,000 m) in California and 14,000 feet (4,000 m) in Mexico, although they are not abundant at the higher elevations. Young or small species of rodents comprise the bulk of the food supply for most rattlesnakes. When a rattlesnake strikes its prey or enemy, the paired fangs unfold from the roof of its mouth. The greatest danger to humans from rattlesnakes is that small children may be struck while rolling and tumbling in the grass. Most species of rattlesnakes are not considered threatened or endangered.

NONPOISONOUS SNAKES

James L. Byford — Mon, 29 Jan 2007 12:59:32 PST

Of the many kinds of snakes (Pituophis melanoleucus) found in the United States, only the following are harmful: rattlesnakes, copperheads, cottonmouths, coral snakes, and sea snakes. Some species of nonpoisonous snakes occur throughout several states, but the majority have only limited ranges. Snakes are not very mobile, and even though some are fairly adaptable, most have specific habitat requirements. All snakes are predators, and the different species eat many different kinds of food. Snakes are specialized animals, having elongated bodies and no legs. A nonpoisonous snake bite has no venom and can do no more harm than frighten the victim. In most states, snakes are considered nongame wildlife and are protected by state law unless they are about to cause personal or property damage.

SALAMANDERS

James L. Byford — Mon, 29 Jan 2007 12:53:12 PST

Salamanders (Ambystoma tigrinumare) are smooth-skinned amphibians with no skin covering such as scales, hair, or feathers. There are several dozen kinds of salamanders found in the United States, but most occur only in parts of one or several states. Salamanders depend on water and moisture for their existence. All salamanders are predators. Salamanders generally are active when there is no sunshine—at night or on cloudy, rainy days. Salamanders do not cause damage to people or property.

FROGS AND TOADS

Paul E. Moler — Mon, 29 Jan 2007 12:48:38 PST

Frogs and toads are amphibians with four legs and no tail. At least 85 species of frogs are native to the United States, and there are three well-established exotic species. Frogs occur in almost all nonmarine habitats. Most frogs have a two-phased life cycle, including an aquatic larval form (tadpole) and a terrestrial or semiaquatic adult form. Although some species spend most of their adult lives away from water, most frogs native to North America must return to water to lay eggs. The greatest potential for economic damage is at fish farms and hatcheries. Laws pertaining to frogs vary from state to state.

CRAYFISH

James F. Fowler et al. — Mon, 29 Jan 2007 12:43:10 PST

Crayfish, also called crawfish, crawcrab, crab, stonecrab, crawdad, creekcrab, and other local names, are native to fresh waters on all continents except Africa, where they have been widely introduced. Most damage associated with crayfish is the result of crayfish burrowing in home lawns. Crayfish may be protected by law in some states.

ALLIGATORS (Alligator mississippiensis)

Allan R. Woodward et al. — Mon, 29 Jan 2007 12:38:04 PST

The American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis) is the most common of two crocodilians native to the United States and is one of 22 crocodilian species worldwide. The American alligator is found in wetlands throughout the coastal plain of the southeastern United States. Alligators can be found in almost any type of fresh water, but population densities are greatest in wetlands with an abundant food supply and adjacent marsh habitat for nesting. Alligators are exclusively carnivorous and prey upon whatever creatures are most available. Alligators are ectothermic — they rely on external sources of heat to maintain body temperature. Damage by alligators is usually limited to injuries or death to humans or domestic animals. The American alligator is federally classified as “threatened due to similarity of appearance” to other endangered and threatened crocodilians.

WOODPECKERS

Rex E. Marsh — Mon, 29 Jan 2007 12:38:02 PST

Woodpeckers (Melanerpes erythrocephalusand Picoides pubescens) belong to the order Piciformes and the family Picidae, which also includes flickers and sapsuckers. Woodpeckers are found throughout the United States. Because they are dependent on trees for shelter and food, woodpeckers are found mostly in or on the edge of wooded areas. Most woodpeckers feed on tree-living or wood-boring insects; however, some feed on a variety of other insects. Woodpeckers are an interesting and familiar group of birds. Woodpecker damage to buildings is a relatively infrequent problem nationwide, but may be significant regionally and locally. Woodpeckers are classified as migratory, nongame birds and are protected by the Federal Migratory Bird Treaty Act.

WATERFOWL

Edward C. Cleary — Mon, 29 Jan 2007 09:10:46 PST

The term waterfowl is properly applied only to ducks, geese, and swans. In North America, most waterfowl are migratory, flying long distances in the spring and fall between the summer breeding grounds and wintering areas. Waterfowl, as their name implies, are most often found near water. The food of individual waterfowl species ranges from fish to insects to plants in various combinations, depending on availability. Waterfowl are normally monogamous and solitary nesters. Goose problems in urban and suburban areas are primarily caused by giant Canada geese, which are probably the most adaptable of all waterfowl. In the United States, migratory birds, including most waterfowl, as well as their nests and eggs, are federally protected (50 CFR 10.12) by the Migratory Bird Treaty Act (MBTA) (16 USC).

SWALLOWS

W. Paul Gorenzel et al. — Mon, 29 Jan 2007 09:06:43 PST

Eight members of the swallow family Hirundinidae breed in North America: the tree swallow (Tachycineta bicolor), violet-green swallow (Tachycineta thalassina), purple martin (Progne subis), bank swallow (Riparia riparia), northern rough-winged swallow (Stelgidopteryx serripennis), barn swallow (Hirundo rustica), cave swallow (Hirundo fulva), and the cliff swallow (Hirundo pyrrhonota). Cliff and barn swallows are found throughout most of North America. Four basic conditions are found near most cliff and barn swallow nest sites: (1) an open habitat for foraging, (2) a suitable surface for nest attachment beneath an overhang or ledge, (3) a supply of mud of the proper consistency for nest building, and (4) a body of fresh water for drinking. All swallows are insectivores, catching a variety of insects. Cliff and barn swallows winter in South America. Swallows have a homing tendency toward previous nesting sites. Cliff swallow nests are gourd-shaped, enclosed structures with an entrance tunnel that opens downward. Cliff swallows usually begin laying eggs before the entrance tunnel is completed. Renesting will occur if nests or eggs are destroyed.

EUROPEAN STARLINGS

Ron J. Johnson et al. — Mon, 29 Jan 2007 09:00:57 PST

Starlings ( Sturnus vulgaris) are robin-sized birds weighing about 3.2 ounces (90 g). Since their introduction into New York in the 1890s, starlings have spread across the continental United States, northward to Alaska and the southern half of Canada, and southward into northern Mexico. Starlings are found in a wide variety of habitats including cities, towns, farms, ranches, open woodlands, fields, and lawns. Starlings consume a variety of foods, including fruits and seeds of both wild and cultivated varieties. European starlings were brought into the United States from Europe. Starlings are frequently considered pests because of the problems they cause, especially at livestock facilities and near urban roosts. European starlings are not protected by federal law and in most cases not by state law.

HOUSE SPARROWS

William D. Fitzwater — Mon, 29 Jan 2007 08:54:11 PST

The house or English sparrow (Passer domesticus) is a brown, chunky bird about 5 3/4 inches (15 cm) long, and very common in human-made habitats. The house sparrow was first introduced in Brooklyn, New York, from England in 1850 and has spread throughout the continent. The house sparrow is found in nearly every habitat except dense forest, alpine, and desert environments. House sparrows are primarily granivorous. Breeding can occur in any month but is most common from March through August. House sparrows consume grains in fields and in storage. The house sparrow is afforded no legal protection by federal statutes because it is an introduced species.

CROWNED SPARROWS

Jerry P. Clark et al. — Mon, 29 Jan 2007 08:47:38 PST

White-crowned sparrows (Zonotrichia leucophrys) are distinguished by their pink or yellowish bill, erect posture, gray throat and breast, and prominent crown streaked with black and white. Geographic races, including the mountain (Z. l. oriantha), Gambel’s (Z. l. gambelii), Nuttall’s (Z. L. nuttalli), and Puget Sound white-crowned sparrow (Z. l. pugetensis) show minor differences in head pattern, bill color, and song. Their songs vary geographically, but consist primarily of clear whistles. White-crowned sparrows are abundant in the western United States. They breed primarily in Alaska and Canada and winter in the western and southern United States and Mexico. White-crowned sparrows are birds of the chaparral, brushy river bottoms, brush piles, rubbish heaps, dense weed fields, and fence rows. Food of white-crowned sparrows averages 75% plant and 25% animal matter. Gambel’s white-crowned sparrows appear in California valleys in September and reach their maximum density during October, becoming injurious to crops in localized areas. The crowned sparrows are involved in crop depredations over a wide area and upon a great variety of crops. Crowned sparrows are classified as migratory nongame birds in the Code of Federal Regulations.

PIGEONS (Rock Doves)

David E. Williams et al. — Mon, 29 Jan 2007 08:43:48 PST

Pigeons (Columbia livia) typically have a gray body with a whitish rump, two black bars on the secondary wing feathers, a broad black band on the tail, and red feet. Pigeons are found throughout the United States (including Hawaii), southern Canada, and Mexico. Pigeons are highly dependent on humans to provide them with food and sites for roosting, loafing, and nesting. Pigeons are primarily grain and seed eaters and will subsist on spilled or improperly stored grain. The common pigeon was introduced into the United States as a domesticated bird, but many escaped and formed feral populations. Pigeon droppings deface and accelerate the deterioration of buildings and increase the cost of maintenance. Feral pigeons are not protected by federal law and most states do not afford them protection.

MAGPIES

Thomas C. Hall — Mon, 29 Jan 2007 08:41:06 PST

Magpies (Pica pica and P. nuttalli) have lived in close association with humans for centuries. Magpies are found in western North America. Magpies are associated with the dry, cool climatic regions of North America. Magpies are omnivorous and very opportunistic, a characteristic typical of other corvids. Magpies, like other corvids, are intelligent birds. Magpies have come into conflict with humans in North America for quite some time. Magpies are protected as migratory nongame birds under the Federal Migratory Bird Treaty Act.

MISSISSIPPI KITES

William F. Andelt — Mon, 29 Jan 2007 08:39:18 PST

The Mississippi kite (Ictinia mississippiensis) is a member of the family Accipitridae, a group of diurnal birds of prey. Mississippi kites nest in Arizona, New Mexico, Oklahoma, Texas, southeastern Colorado, southern Kansas, and the eastern states from southern Missouri to South Carolina. Mississippi kites are primarily insectivorous. Most Mississippi kites probably winter in Argentina and Brazil. Some Mississippi kites create problems by diving at and frightening people who venture near their nests. Mississippi kites are fully protected under the Federal Migratory Bird Treaty Act (1918) and state regulations.

SCRUB (OR CALIFORNIA) JAY

Jerry P. Clark et al. — Mon, 29 Jan 2007 08:37:37 PST

The scrub (or California) jay (Aphelocoma coerulescens) is distinguished by its crestless head, olive-gray back, and white throat, outlined in blue. Scrub jays are found in the western United States, parts of Mexico, and in central Florida. Scrub jays commonly inhabit the oak and brush-covered foothills of the mountains, timbered canyons, river bottoms, oak-lined sloughs and creeks, as well as the shade trees and dense shrubbery of residential areas. Beal (1910) reported that the diet of the scrub jay consisted of 73% plant and 27% animal matter. The plant matter was about one-third fruits and berries, and two-thirds acorns, nuts, and grain. Nests are usually found on brush-covered hillsides or in creek bottoms in low bushes, shrubs, and trees. Jays are omnivorous and therefore may damage several agricultural crops such as nuts, fruits, grains, peas, corn, and berries. Scrub jays are classified as migratory nongame birds in the Code of Federal Regulations.

HOUSE FINCHES (LINNETS)

Jerry P. Clark et al. — Mon, 29 Jan 2007 08:33:54 PST

House finches (Carpodacus mexicanus), also known as linnets, are about the same size as house sparrows. House finches are abundant residents throughout the western United States and Mexico. The house finch is most abundant in the warm valleys of California near cultivated lands. House finches are primarily seed eaters, and before the introduction of cultivated fruits, they probably lived largely on weed seeds. House finches nest in a great variety of places. House finches peck and feed on practically all deciduous fruits, berries, grains, vegetable seed, and flower seed. House finches are classified as migratory nongame birds in the Code of Federal Regulations.

HORNED LARKS

Jerry P. Clark et al. — Mon, 29 Jan 2007 08:31:10 PST

Horned larks (Eremophila alpestris) are ground-dwelling birds that are slightly larger than house sparrows. They are brown, with a yellowish face, black breast, black “whiskers,” and two small black “horns.” Horned larks breed widely throughout North America, from northern Alaska to southern Mexico. In certain parts of California the horned lark is a serious crop pest. The food of the horned lark consists largely of seeds picked up from the ground. Vegetable crops damaged by horned larks include beets, broccoli, carrots, lettuce, peas, spinach, and tomatoes. Other field and truck crops damaged are alfalfa, grain, sugar beets, cantaloupes, and watermelons. Horned larks are classified as migratory nongame birds in the Code of Federal Regulations.