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Abstract

I. Introduction

II. Sporhase v. Nebraska: An Analysis of the Case and Nebraska's Response to It ... A. The Law Prior to Sporhase ... B. The Sporhase Case ... 1. The Facts ... 2. Origin of the Nebraska Groundwater Export Statute ... 3. The Litigation in Nebraska ... 4. The United States Supreme Court Opinion ... a. Water as an Article of Commerce ... b. An Impermissible Burden on Interstate Commerce ... c. The Reciprocity Clause ... d. Congressional Authorization ... 5. The Supreme Court Dissent ... 6. The Case Back in Nebraska ... 7. Conclusion ... C. Nebraska Statutory Responses to Sporhase

III. Water, Water Rights, and Water Transfers: State Power and Jurisdiction after Sporhase ... A. Water Supplies and Demands ... B. Surface and Ground Water ... C. The Nature of Water Transfers ... D. Authority of the State to Oversee Interstate Transfers of Water ... 1. Water as Property of the State ... 2. Water Rights as Creatures of State Law ... 3. The Regulation of Water Use ... 4. Groundwater Rights in Nebraska ... E. Constitutional Protection for Private Water Rights … F. Congressional Power to Regulate Groundwater Use in the United States ... 1. Sources of Federal Power ... 2. De Facto Allocations of Water Pursuant to Federal Law ... a. Statutes That Impose Planning Obligations … b. Statutes That Protect Critical Areas ... c. Statutes That Allocate Water to "Noneconomic" Uses ... d. Statutes That Allocate Water to Preferred Uses ... G. Allocation of Water among States ... 1. Equitable Apportionment ... 2. Interstate Compacts ... 3. Congressional Allocation ... H. State Authority after Sporhase—Conclusion

IV. Interstate v. Intrastate Users: Constitutional Limitations on Unequal Treatment in the Aftermath of Sporhase ... A. The Commerce Clause ... 1. Background ... 2. Criteria Triggering Federal Commerce Clause Scrutiny ... 3. Negative Commerce Clause and Congressional Authority ... B. State Regulation of Interstate Commerce: What Is Permitted, What Prohibited? ... 1. Intentional Discrimination against Interstate Commerce ... a. Facially Discriminatory Legislation ... b. Facially Neutral Legislation ... c. Reciprocity Clauses ... 2. Unintentional Discrimination against Interstate Commerce ... a. Legislation with a Discriminatory Effect ... b. The Bruce Church Test for State Regulatory Policy ... c. The Complete Auto Transit Test for State Tax Policy ... C. Market Participant Theory: An Exception to the Negative Commerce Clause ... 1. Background ... 2. Applicability to Natural Resources ... 3. Legal Consequences of Market Participant Status ... D. Privileges and Immunities and Equal Protection ... 1. Privileges and Immunities Clause ... 2. Equal Protection Clause

V. Responses by Other States to the Sporhase Decision ... A. State Law at the Time of Sporhase ... B. The New Mexico Litigation ... 1. El Paso I ... a. Factual Background ... b. Results of the Litigation ... c. Key Issues Addressed by the Court ... i. Can state regulation favor local economies? ... ii. Does water have unique constitutional status? ... iii. What is a "severe shortage" of water? ... iv. Can a state reserve water for future needs? ... 2. El Paso II ... C. Legislative Studies in New Mexico ... D. Conclusion

VI. Pitfalls to Avoid in Legislative Drafting and Constitutional Litigation ... A. Drafting Considerations ... 1. Know the Character and Dimensions of Water Use ... 2. Draft to Achieve a Constitutional Water Policy … 3. Provide a Comprehensive Approach ... 4. Keep Statements Consistent with Policy ... B. Constitutional Litigation

VII. An Assessment of Policy Options after Sporhase ... A. Findings and Implications

VIII. Appendix: Export Statutes of the Western States ... A . Arizona ... B. California ... C. Colorado ... D . Idaho ... E. Kansas ... F. Montana ... G. Nebraska ... H. Nevada ... I. New Mexico ... J. North Dakota ... K. Oklahoma ... L. Oregon ... M. South Dakota ... N. Texas ... O. Utah ... P. Washington ... Q. Wyoming

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